In parallel with the developments in social, economic, cultural, environmental, technological, and political dimensions in modern society, the concepts of recreation, open and green spaces, and free/leisure time continue to be current and play an important role in human life. It is accepted that factors such as the increase in urbanization trend, the gradual development of transportation/accessibility opportunities, climate change, the global epidemic (Covid-19), and the increase in the use of digital technology cause the change and diversification of recreational demands and trends. In addition, unhealthy, uncontrolled, and rapid urbanization and the inadequacy of existing green open spaces and recreation facilities in urban areas have caused many citizens to spend their time in natural and rural areas rather than cities.
Recreation is a universal and vital need for the individual and society. It is seen that he has been engaged in recreational activities in every period of human history. The need for recreation has positive benefits in terms of physical, intellectual, and mental aspects that recreational activities provide individually and socially. In addition, factors such as socialization, creativity, development of personal skills and abilities, social solidarity/integration, effect on work success and work efficiency, economic mobility, and making people happy are also effective
Recreational activities and trends are directly related to lifestyles. New developments and changes in daily life lead to the differentiation of people’s lifestyles. With the developing technology, it can save time by doing things faster, and this situation creates free time. However, developments in digital technology, communication, or transportation also lead people to lead an inactive (sedentary) and virtual lifestyle. It is accepted that this situation contradicts recreational purposes. Recreation is the whole of the actions that include active and passive activities, which are done in free time outside the compulsory life activities of the person, do not aim to win any prize, provide physical, intellectual, and mental renewal and development, and are performed as a result of an inner impulse of the person.
Introduction
Outdoor recreation refers to activities that people undertake out of doors in places where they can access nature or green areas, mainly as part of their daily or weekend routines (Bell et al., 2007). Recreation approaches aim to provide different contributions to the individual/society such as meeting needs, free/leisure time, adding value, and regeneration. At the same time, participation in recreational activities may vary to the level of satisfaction of individuals, as well as with the effect of some factors specific to individuals or societies. In terms of recreational areas, possible demands and trends, activity preferences, diversity and intensities, and duration of use can vary greatly. Recreational activities are directly related to Maslow’s Pyramid of Needs approach. The Pyramid of Needs, from bottom to top, is in order; original physiological demands, protection, belongingand socialization, respect, status, and proving yourself (Maslow, 1943).
Besides providing recreation, rest, and entertainment opportunities, there are also negative environmental effects such as soil compaction, loss of organic matter, damage or loss of vegetation, damage to fauna and water resources, loss of area, and pollution , recreation planning is a method based on the use of information, which provides resource allocation for the association of space, time, and society with each other to meet the free and leisure needs of society today and in the future. Recreation planning is a process that includes methods that can establish a relationship between people’s free or leisure time (demand and needs) and recreation resources (supply).
It can be defined as determining the current potential of the land in question for recreation and making land use decisions that can bring together multiple uses that will ensure optimum utilization of this land, especially without disturbing the ecological balance. Recreation includes a holistic planning/design and management/governance organization. It requires holistic management planning in which recreational activities are defined in action and processes for various purposes compatible with recreational resource values are included.
There are many deficiencies in the recreation planning process in natural areas, include are ecological policies (ecopolitics) are not at the forefront, resource values are not prioritized for protection, carrying capacity is not foreseen, decisions are not taken for visitor management, there is no participation at every stage of the process, the demands and tendencies of the area users/visitors and local people are not taken into account, not defining cooperation with stakeholders such as NGOs, not foreseeing awareness and educational actions for protection, lack of design projects, etc
Table of Contents
2.Conceptual Framework
2.1 Recreation Concept
The concept of recreation comes from the Latin word “recreatio”. It means the re-creation or acquisition of something, which is associated with the English words “re-repeat” and “create”. Today, recreation is generally used to mean regaining freshness or vitality. The person engages in various activities for this purpose. Activities that do not contribute to the individual in terms of rest, enjoyment, and entertainment are not considered recreation. There are many different definitions of recreation.
| Author(s) | Year | Definition |
|---|---|---|
| Tanrıverdi | 1975 | All activities done or watched to gain spiritual and physical vitality, providing relaxation and pleasure in natural settings to eliminate fatigue caused by daily work. |
| Akesen | 1978 | A satisfying action that aims at spiritual and physical regeneration and includes the individual’s social, cultural, economic, physiological opportunities and leisure use. |
| Gold | 1980 | All leisure-time activities that people engage in according to their demands. |
| Smith | 1983 | Thousands of different phenomena that provide different satisfactions in various locations, each requiring different resources as demanded by participants. |
| Edginton & Ford | 1985 | A social institution, a body of knowledge, and a professional field. Recreation is voluntary spare-time activity providing personal satisfaction and supporting a full, happy life. |
| Koç | 1991 | Activities done in free time, arising from personal will and impulse, aiming to renew the individual physically and intellectually, dependent on social, economic, and cultural opportunities. |
| Yurtseven | 1992 | Activities performed or observed to gain spiritual and physical vitality, reducing stress and intensity from daily life in natural environments. |
| Akesen | 1996 | All action associated with leisure, including stillness — meaning preplanned inactivity or action. |
| Karaküçük | 1997 | Voluntary individual or group activities done in free time to regain, protect, or maintain physical and mental health and obtain pleasure. |
| Anderson | 1998 | Activities meeting individuals’ spiritual expectations, supporting development, and carried out freely without pressure during free time. |
| Kraus | 1998 | Activities that help individuals escape work-related stress or those that make people happy during their free time. |
| Broadhurst | 2001 | Activities involving physical, emotional, social, and cognitive components in which individuals participate during free time. |
| Tütüncü | 2012 | A multidisciplinary field of activities performed voluntarily in free time to improve life quality without harming nature. |
| Koçyiğit & Yıldız | 2014 | Activities individuals choose to do to develop themselves, enjoy, and renew, carried out voluntarily in spare time aside from obligatory duties. |
| Hazar | 2014 | Activities individuals willingly participate in, achieving satisfaction during periods outside of obligatory behaviors. |
The American Camping Association (ACA) defined recreation as an experience that provides creative and educational opportunities to group life outdoors and stated that natural environmental resources contribute to the mental, physical, social and spiritual development of the user (Kurum, 1992). According to Allen & McCool (1982), the model shows the relationships between participation in outdoor recreation activities and 8 safe ecological behavior, an individual’s environmental ethics can be improved by participating in central outdoor recreation activities, which leads to more reliable environmental behavior of people. Thus, they can increasingly become aware of the sensitivity of the environment, and the effects of themselves and other people on the environment, and take action individually to reduce these effects on the environment (Burr, 1992).
The concept of “recreation” can be defined in general as follows, using many definitions. “Recreation is the sum of all actions including active or passive activities as individually & in groups that are done in free/leisure time, outside of the compulsory life activities of the human being, any award and non-profit, providing to the person with physical, intellectual/mental renewal and development by self-made. The main purpose of recreation is to relax, have fun, improve oneself, be happy and integrate with life.
2.2. Basic Features of Recreation
The main features of the recreation can be summarized as follows
▪ Recreation is a necessity,
▪ There is no coercion, the person participates in the activity voluntarily and as a result of the internal push,
▪ Volunteering is essential. It should not be done by external pressures, legal rules, or coercion,
▪ The “initiative” in recreational activities should be left to the person himself,
▪ Recreational activities can be applied in all kinds of open or closed areas and all seasons and climatic conditions,
▪ Recreation includes or requires an activity. This mobility covers a wide range of activities including physical, mental, social, and emotional,
▪ Recreation has instructive, educational, entertaining, relaxing, and regenerative features,
▪ Entertainment is an invariable outcome of recreation, but it is not an end in itself for recreation,
▪ Recreation may differ from person to person and profession, as well as from time and place,
▪ It allows people of all ages and genders to participate in activities,
▪ Recreation, while doing an activity, allows being interested or performing in the second or more activities,
▪ Participation in recreation depends on personal satisfaction and perception of the activity,
▪ Recreation should be by the traditions, customs, and moral/spiritual values of the society and should not contradict social values,
▪ Recreation action, planned or unplanned, can be done with skilled or unskilled people, or in organized or unorganized places,
▪ It can be carried out by individuals or groups for a short time or continuously, in a certain period or continuously,
▪ Gains experience,
▪ Increases social assistance and solidarity,
▪ Reinforces the harmony of humans with nature,
▪ Recreation increases people’s creative power, desire for life, and workforce,
▪ It has a psychological aspect, reduces fear,
▪ Recreation is an activity that provides pleasure and joy,
▪ Non-monetary or non-profit,
▪ Develops international relations, etc.
Factors affecting recreational needs and tendencies:
▪ The effects of population growth and population-related changes on the recreation pattern,
▪ Changing living standards and increasing standards,
▪ Increasing transportation and accessibility opportunities (Mobility),
▪ Decreasing working hours and increasing free time,
▪ Increasing the level of education,
▪ Rapid urbanization and gradual alienation from the natural environment,
▪ Insufficient urban open and green spaces and increasing demand,
▪ It is the emergence of changes in recreational behavior and desires,
▪ Increasing visual and print media, advertising and promotion activities,
▪ Development of digital technology,
▪ With the widespread use of the Internet and social media,
▪ An increase in the level of financial situation,
▪ National and local tourism policies and practices gaining importance, etc.
2.3. Free Time and Leisure Time Concepts
The concepts of free time or leisure time are the parts of time that are excluded from the time spent by individuals for working and other compulsory activities (e.g. sleeping, eating, etc.).
Free time or leisure time has three basic functions in general. These; are rest, entertainment, and self-development/development functions.
In their free time, people want to forget their daily troubles and troubles and rest, if possible, to have some fun. The issue to be considered here is; It is generally stated that recreational activities are done in free time, but activities performed in every spare time will not be recreation (Gülez, 1989).
Recreation activities constitute certain forms of use, especially in the spare period. Leisure time, on the other hand, refers to the period used especially during work and sleep time. There is a certain difference between free time and leisure time. Leisure time reflects a “direction”, while free time includes a potential “open to the direction”.
The concept of free time can be grouped as follows, within the principles adopted in recreational planning (Bayraktar, 1972).
a. Daily free time
• Free time during the active period of the day, which includes work,
• Free time during the passive part of the day (free time after work),
b. Weekly free time,
c. Annual free time (Irregular holidays such as public and religious holidays and free time including annual holidays).
Some values or consequences emerge from the good or bad uses of free/leisure time. Free/ leisure time, when it can be used appropriately, provides people with opportunities to rest, have fun, train themselves, develop themselves, be creative, socialize, mature, develop their vision and knowledge, experience their responsibility, and freedom, and find themselves. When used poorly, it can cause harmful habits, stagnation, laziness, carelessness, selfishness, disorder, lack of thought, boredom, unhappiness, and others. After all, free or leisure time can be likened to a double-edged sword.
2.4. Recreation Classification Types
▪ Structural classification: “indoor and outdoor”
▪ Territorial classification: “urban and rural (natural)”
▪ Contextual classification: “active and passive”
▪ Temporal classification: daily and holiday (“weekly” and “yearly”)
▪ Resource classification: “user-oriented recreation areas and resource-based recreation areas”.
2.5. Recreation Activities
The concept of activity is the actions of people for specific purposes (e.g. cultural, social, entertainment, educational, scientific, health, political, etc.). Recreational activities are the activities in which individuals participate in open or closed areas, individually or collectively, of their own will, in their free or leisure time, for entertainment, rest, satisfaction, discovery, and pleasure, etc.
Recreational activities are classified in many ways. Simple fun, mental (intellectual) activities, sporting events, music and dance events, picture events, hobby activities, educational events, relaxing activities, social events, artistic events, scientific events, humanitarian services, outdoor activities, and political events.
Recreational activities are the most important component of free/leisure time or recreational activities in human life. For this reason, organizing the activities in the most ideal way is the most important issue for the recreation areas and the planning process.
3.Outdoor Recreation Planning and Design
The planning approach is a systematic organizational process that includes the realization of the goals/objectives to be achieved in the future from the current situation of an area or subject, with the help of time and tools.
The plan, on the other hand, expresses an operational result in which the spatial, social, and economic processes that the current situation will take in the future are defined and constructed. In other words, it is a result of the planning process (Koçel, 2003).
Planning is the taking of decisions to be developed to reach the determined goals in a system where mutual relations exist between them (Suher, 1996). Planning is a decision-making process. The elements constituting this process are intelligibility, applicability, public participation, mutual learning, responsibility, and ownership, representing interdisciplinary work and communication (Eagles et al., 2003).
Planning is the most important process of providing the necessary opportunities for people to evaluate their free time in terms of recreational activities. Recreation planning is a process that includes methods that can establish a relationship between people’s free or leisure time (demand and needs) and recreation resources (supply).
It can be defined as determining the current potential of the land in question for recreation and making land use decisions that can bring together multiple uses that will ensure optimum utilization of this land, especially without disturbing the ecological balance.
According to Gold (1980), recreation planning is a method based on the use of information, which provides resource allocation for the association of space, time, and society with each other to meet the free and leisure needs of society today and in the future (Gold, 1980). Recreation planning is considered to be the whole of the work done to meet the recreational demands in a continuous and balanced way.
Recreation planning can also be considered a mixture of spatial and social planning with its general dimensions. The recreation planning process is conceptually expressed as a holistic process of studies carried out to determine the demands/needs of people for making use of their free/leisure time and to meet them continuously and in a balanced way without harming recreation resources. Recreation planning is not a static process, but a dynamic and variable process. They represent processes that complement and follow each other that provide this dynamism.
The main purpose of recreational planning is the development of physical plans and programs that will serve to establish the most appropriate and long-term balance between recreational resources and the recreational needs of people. In this context, it is to improve the quality of life of the individual and society, to provide a healthy, enjoyable, safe, meaning to life, and to create a livable environment suitable for the public interest.
There are two basic criteria to be considered in recreation planning. One is the recreational resource (supply) that tries to meet the recreational demand within the limits of its possibilities. The other is the individual and society that has various qualities and quantities and makes recreational demands and needs. Recreation planning approaches generally aim to realize recreational activities according to demands and needs or anticipate recreational activities compatible with natural and cultural resources.
Individual values and demands are very important in recreation planning.
However, to protect and develop natural and cultural resource values in the best way, public values and benefits should be prioritized. The recreation planning process concerns many disciplines such as landscape architecture, building architecture, geography, tourism professionals, public administration, sociology, forestry, recreation management, and others. Both the concept of recreation and the planning of recreation make teamwork obligatory because it is complex and covers many different disciplines.
For this purpose, in the first step of planning, limited existing or potential resources and continuous user demands and trends should be determined in detail. On the other hand, predicting the long-term dimensions of user demands with the determined resources and reflecting them in the plan-program goals is an important condition for reaching the targets.
Major tasks of recreational planning/design (developed from Gold, 1980).
▪ Informing the decision makers on this issue by determining the existing or expected free/leisure time opportunities qualitatively and quantitatively,
▪ Improvement and development of free/leisure use in urban living environments,
▪ Ensuring the use of the free/leisure opportunities of the society at the optimum distance, diversity, and in the best environment,
▪ Protection and development of all kinds of recreational resources in a way that will provide the highest and best recreational benefits,
▪ Integration of recreation planning with other related types of planning,
▪ Associating recreation areas and activities between planning and design scales, integrating and ensuring continuity,
▪ Making official institutions effective in recreation and recreation planning,
▪ Evaluation of the effects of recreational development existing or designed in the public and private sectors,
▪ To support and encourage public-private sector cooperation in the provision and evaluation of leisure time opportunities in city centers or rural areas,
▪ Making existing or designed recreational opportunities and services realistic,
▪ To encourage scientific research and practices in this field to improve recreation opportunities and services.
Recreation planning is a phenomenon that needs to be addressed at the national, regional, macro and micro-catchment, urban, rural, and site scales (between 1/1000000 and 1/1000 scales). It is a series of future-oriented, order-building, and optimal decisions that will reveal versatile use by associating resource values with its users aesthetically and functionally. Recreation design, on the other hand, includes application-oriented design projects (between 1/500-1/100 scales) and detailing (between 1/50-1/1 scales) made at the scale of micro-areas, sites, and objects within the framework of planning and afterward.
4. Methods and Tools Used in Outdoor Recreation Planning
Different methods and tools for recreation planning have been developed and used extensively in Canada and the USA. Much of the conceptual theory used in tourism and recreation planning originates from the “Products Analysis Sequence for Outdoor Leisure Procedure” (PASOLP) developed in the 1970s (Baud Bovy & Lawson, 1977). PASOLP is a progressive process that has five main steps:
• Surveys and analysis of the factors
• Definition of alternative products
• Recommendation of the needs and priorities for tourism and recreation development
• Preparation of plans for the tourism and recreation sectors
• Implementation of the development
Kiemstedt (1967) aimed to gradually determine the recreational suitability of various landscape areas with the “Value of Diversity” (V-Wert) method. The first formalized (repeatable) method for transparently and intersubjectively assessing the diversity of the landscape was developed by Kiemstedt in 1967. The method followed a multicriteria benefit analysis approach. In this method, the recreational suitability of the planning area was determined according to the existing characteristics of the area.
These are soil, water structure (e.g. water edges), weather (climate), vegetation (forest edges, use in terms of forestry, etc.), and agricultural land use (e.g. field, meadow-pasture, etc.). The criteria for these five groups of activities are grouped under 4 headings. These are; the quantity of forest and water edges (m/km²), relief energy (height difference), quality and quantity of agricultural land uses, and climate factors. With these criterion values, the “Value of Diversity” for recreational suitability can be calculated for each coordinate area over a formula (Gülez, 1996; Demircioğlu, 2010).
Suitability Method: In the suitability method developed by Wedeck, data on soil, water, and vegetation characteristics are collected to determine the uses of settlement, recreation, agriculture, and waste areas to adjust the balance of protection and use of environmental effects, and the qualities determined for each criterion is evaluated as suitable or unsuitable (Köseoğlu, 1982).
Ecological Celling Method: In this method developed by Golany, the data are scored according to the criteria under the main classes determined as physical, environmental, socio-economic, and transportation criteria and the scores are marked on the map. Then, the suitability of the area is determined by evaluating the highest scores and alternative areas entered into the cells (Demircioğlu, 2010).
Many data sources and planning tools can be used for applying science in The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) assessments. These tools were designed to be used in planning at various scales and many seek to integrate both social science and biophysical information. It organized recreation planning tools into three types: planning frameworks, analytic applications, and visitor data (McCool et al., 2007). NEPA focused on frameworks used for wildland recreation planning in the U.S. that approximate the steps of the traditional rational planning process (i.e., define the problem, identify goals and objectives, develop and analyze alternatives, select the preferred alternative, implement and monitor the plan) (Cerveny et al., 2011). There are different methods and tools for recreation planning in Table 2. (Cerveny et al., 2011).
Different Methods and Tools for Recreation Planning
| Name of Methods or Tools | Definition | Steps of the Process | Strengths and Weaknesses |
|---|---|---|---|
| The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) | ROS was developed in the 1970s by Forest Service scientists and managers to address growing recreation use and to integrate visitor experience information with recreation site attributes (Clark & Stankey, 1979; McCool et al., 2007). The development of ROS was based on empirical research on recreation visitors and their site preferences and usage. ROS was also the conceptual precursor to LAC, VERP, and VIM. The ROS process utilizes social, biological, and managerial characteristics to produce a map of opportunity zones ranging from low-use-primitive to high-use-urban type recreational settings (McCool et al., 2007; More & Driver, 2005). ROS is not a planning framework, because it does not include the systematic development and analysis of alternatives. Recent research shows that ROS has been applied primarily as a descriptive inventory assessment (Stankey, 1999). ROS is used by field managers, landscape architects, city planners, etc. for the planning process to reveal the recreation potential in open areas and to increase the recreational diversity over the existing potential. It is a tool that includes behavioral elements developed for ROS considers the recreational activities demanded by the recreational users and the physical, social, and administrative situation of the area, and divides the recreation areas into six different classes from urban to primitive. | Steps of the Process of ROS (Nilsen & Tayler, 1997). 1. Inventory and map the three setting perspectives that affect the experience of the recreational, namely the physical, social, and managerial components. 2. Complete analysis: a) identify setting inconsistencies; b) define recreation opportunity classes; c) integrate with forest management activities; and d) identify conflicts and recommend mitigation. 3. Schedule. 4. Design. 5. Execute projects. 6. Monitor. | Strengths: It is a practical process with principles that force managers to rationalize management from three perspectives: • protection of the resource; • opportunities for public use; and • the organization’s ability to meet preset conditions. It links supply with demand and can be readily integrated with other processes. It ensures that a range of recreation opportunities are provided to the public. Weaknesses: The recreation opportunity spectrum, its setting indicators, and their criteria must be accepted in total by managers before any options or decisions can be made. Disagreement will affect the rest of the planning program. ROS maps need to be related to the physical and biophysical characteristics of each area (Nilsen & Tayler, 1997). |
| Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) | LAC was developed by the Forest Service in the 1980s in response to requests to establish recreation-carrying capacities in wilderness areas (Cole & McCool, 1997). LAC involves identifying recreation opportunities and desired resource and social conditions for a particular area and evaluating the effects of the change to those conditions. The steps of the LAC process have been used to inform a wide variety of planning efforts, including the development of VERP and VIM (McCool et al., 2007). | Steps of recreation planning frameworks of LAC (Nilsen & Tayler, 1997; Cerveny et al., 2011). • Identify area issues and concerns • Define and describe wilderness recreation opportunity classes • Select indicators of biophysical and social conditions • Inventory existing biophysical and social conditions • Specify standards for biophysical and social conditions in each opportunity • Identify alternative opportunity class allocations reflecting area-wide issues and concerns and existing biophysical and social conditions • Identify management actions for each alternative • Evaluate and select a preferred alternative • Implement actions and monitor | Strengths: The final product is a strategic and tactical plan for the area based on defined limits of acceptable change for each opportunity class, with indicators of change that can be used to monitor ecological and social conditions. Weaknesses: The process focuses on issues and concerns that guide subsequent data collection and analysis. Strategic and tactical direction may not be provided on management topics where there are no current issues or concerns (Nilsen & Tayler, 1997). |
| Visitor Experience and Resource Protection (VERP) | VERP was developed by the National Park Service (NPS) in the mid-1990s primarily for recreation planning in national parks, though it has been applied in other settings. The framework includes an explicit step for public involvement (NPS VERP Handbook, 2006/2013). | Steps of recreation planning frameworks of VERP (NPS VERP Handbook; Nilsen & Tayler, 1997). • Assemble an interdisciplinary project team. • Develop a public involvement strategy. • Develop statements of park purpose, significance, and primary interpretive themes; identity planning mandates and constraints. • Analyze park resources and existing visitor use. • Describe a potential range of visitor experiences and resource conditions (potential prescriptive zones). • Allocate the potential zones to specific locations within the park (prescriptive management zoning). • Select indicators and specify standards for each zone; develop a monitoring plan. • Monitor resource and social indicators. • Take management actions | Strengths: Like VAMP, VERP is a thought process that draws on the talents of a team and is guided by policy and the park’s purpose statement. It guides resource analysis through the use of statements of significance and sensitivity, and visitor opportunity analysis is guided by statements defining important elements of the visitor experience. Zoning is the focus of management. Weaknesses: Additional work is required to pilot the approach in different environments. “Experience” is not defined and the indicators for it are absent beyond the examples for Arches National Park. The will and ability to monitor sufficiently to provide information to guide management actions must also be tested (Nilsen & Tayler, 1997). |
| Visitor Activity Management Process (VAMP) | Created by Parks Canada as a companion process to the Natural Resources Management Process within the Parks Canada Management Planning System. The process guides the planning and management of new parks, developing parks, and established parks (Nilsen & Tayler, 1997). | The general steps of the management plan process are: (Nilsen & Tayler, 1997). 1. Produce project terms of reference. 2. Confirm existing park purpose and objectives statements. 3. Organize a database describing park ecosystems and settings, potential visitor educational and recreational opportunities, existing visitor activities and services, and the regional context. 4. Analyse the existing situation to identify heritage themes, resource capability, and suitability, appropriate visitor activities, the park’s role in the region, and the role of the private sector. 5. Produce alternative visitor activity concepts for these settings, experiences to be supported, visitor market segments, levels of service guidelines, and roles of the region and the private sector. 6. Create a park management plan, including the park’s purpose and role, management objectives and guidelines, regional relationships, and the role of the private sector. 7. Implementation—set priorities for park conservation and park service planning. | Strengths: Comprehensive decision-making process based on a hierarchy. It benefits from the structured thinking required to analyze both opportunity and impact. It combines social science principles with those of marketing to focus on visitor opportunities. Weaknesses: Although well-developed at the service planning level, VAMP does not yet have the clout it should have at the management planning level, mainly because the “opportunities for experience” definition has not been built into management plans or the zoning (Nilsen & Tayler, 1997). |
| Visitor Impact Management (VIM) | VIM was developed in the early 1990s for the NPS by scientists at the University of Maryland. This approach emphasizes three factors related to visitor impacts: problem conditions, causal factors, and management strategies (VIM literature summary; Nilsen & Tayler, 1997). VIM focuses more heavily on the impacts or problems of visitor use, rather than on recreation opportunities and benefits (McCool et al., 2007). | Steps of recreation planning frameworks of VIM (Nilsen & Tayler, 1997; Cerveny et al., 2011). • Conduct pre-assessment and database review • Review Management objectives • Select key indicators • Select standards for key impact indicators • Compare standards and existing conditions • Identify probable causes of impacts • Identify management strategies • Implement | Strengths: The process provides for a balanced use of scientific and judgemental considerations. It places heavy emphasis on understanding causal factors to identify management strategies. The process also provides a classification of management strategies and a matrix for evaluating them. Weaknesses: The process does not make use of ROS, although it could. It is written to address current conditions of impact, rather than to assess potential impacts (Nilsen & Tayler, 1997). |
| Recreation Carrying Capacity (RCC) | RCC was a concept first used in natural resources management referring to the limits of growth that an area can achieve due to environmental factors (Shelby & Heberlein, 1986). The concept was applied to the recreation management of parks as early as the 1930s when officials asked how many people could coexist in a wilderness area before the wilderness quality is destroyed (Manning, 1999). In the 1970s, recreation scientists began using the concept to determine levels of the appropriate use of a park, wilderness, or other management area. Recreation Carrying Capacity (RCC) typically involves defining recreation opportunities, establishing indicators and standards of quality to be maintained, and monitoring these indicators for change (Nilsen & Tayler, 1997). | Carrying capacity planning deals with 6 stages (Lim, 1998). • Defining the carrying capacity • Determining the type of tourism (use) • Listing of targets • Determination of criteria affecting capacity • Determination of usage levels or thresholds. Demonstrating the carrying capacity | Researchers have shown that the issue of carrying capacity is essentially a qualitative concept and that it is very difficult to measure (Tokmak, 2008). According to Saveriades (2000), carrying capacity is not a scientific concept or formula used to obtain a numerical expression that indicates the point of termination of development, but it is not a fixed / unchangeable concept as it develops with time and growth. The method to be chosen in capacity determination studies can generally vary depending on the type and nature of the information aimed to be obtained for capacity. |
Today, demand and trends for outdoor recreation areas increase and diversify due to sociodemographic, economic, environmental, and technological changes. The need for new areas to meet the recreational demands and needs brings with it a direct competition with other land use sectors (agriculture, settlement, industry, mining, etc.). For this reason, it requires the organization of effective, sustainable, and holistic planning and management processes to prioritize them for recreational purposes within the framework of land use competition.
The recreation planning approach can be considered as a combination of interdisciplinary science, art, and social branches that can be associated with recreation spaces and activities that the individual and society can evaluate their free/leisure time in public and private spaces. In this context, the decision-making process in recreation planning (e.g., use of space, site selection of activity areas, design and positioning of recreational facilities and structures, meeting recreational demands and needs) should be prioritized by taking into account the protection of resource values and public benefits. Although there are many approaches and tools for planning outdoor recreation areas, there is no consensus on an ideal planning approach yet.
NEPA has identified the strengths and weaknesses of each of the wide variety of available recreation planning tools (Cerveny et al., 2011). In addition, it also reveals the negative interaction and competition between the protection of resource values and the level of recreation use in the recreation planning process. Therefore, there is a need to develop new paradigms such as effective, efficient, proactive, creative, minimizing negative effects and competition, broad-based participation, etc. (Cerveny et al., 2011).
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